Sino-Indian War

Lore & Background

The main cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated Aksai Chin and NESA border regions. Aksai Chin was claimed by India as belonging to Ladakh and by China to be a part of Xinjiang. China constructed a road through the region that connected the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang, which was one of the triggers of the conflict. The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originated in 1834, with the conquest of Ladakh by the armies of Raja Gulab Singh (Dogra) under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire. Following an unsuccessful campaign into Tibet, Gulab Singh and the Tibetans signed a treaty in 1842 agreeing to stick to the "old, established frontiers", which were left unspecified. British commissioners fixed the southern end of the boundary at Pangong Lake, but regarded the area north of it till the Karakoram Pass as terra incognita. The Maharaja of Kashmir regarded Shahidulla as his northern outpost, in effect treating the Kunlun mountains as the boundary of his domains. After the 1862 Dungan Revolt, the Maharaja of Kashmir constructed a small fort at Shahidulla in 1864. W. H. Johnson of Survey of India was commissioned to survey the Aksai Chin region. The boundary of Kashmir that he drew, stretching from Sanju Pass to the eastern edge of Chang Chenmo Valley along the Kunlun mountains, is referred to as the "Johnson Line" (or "Ardagh-Johnson Line"). By 1892, the British settled on the policy that their preferred boundary for Kashmir was the "Indus watershed". A boundary alignment along this water-parting was defined by the Viceroy Lord Elgin and communicated to London. The British government proposed it to China via its envoy Sir Claude MacDonald in 1899. This boundary, which came to be called the Macartney–MacDonald Line, ceded to China the Aksai Chin plains in the northeast, and the Trans-Karakoram Tract in the north.

Reader's Guide

The conflict ended when China unilaterally declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962 and simultaneously announced its withdrawal to its pre-war position, the effective China–India border. Much of the fighting consisted of mountain warfare, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 5,000 m (16,000 ft). The war took place entirely on land, without the use of naval or air assets, and neither side officially declared a war, or broke off diplomatic relations. The conflict was viewed as a major military and political setback in India. In response, India rapidly modernised and expanded its armed forces, and strengthened border defences. India reassessed its policy towards China, and the conflict permanently damaged the Sino-Indian relations. As the Sino-Soviet split deepened, the Soviet Union supported India with the sale of military hardware, while India were also compelled to turn to the Soviets for military aid as the United States and the United Kingdom refused to sell them advanced weaponry. A series of border skirmishes arose between the two countries after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India granted asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. Chinese military action grew increasingly aggressive after India rejected proposed Chinese diplomatic settlements throughout 1960–1962, with China resuming previously banned "forward patrols" in Ladakh after 30 April 1962. In September–October 1962, tensions escalated at Dhola Post and Thagla Ridge on the eastern front, where India interpreted the McMahon Line to run along the ridge, while China rejected this claim. A series of clashes ended with Chinese forces gaining the advantage, and by 18 October, China had amassed a large number of troops for a major offensive. China abandoned all attempts towards a peaceful resolution on 20 October 1962, and launched simultaneous offensives in NESA (eastern front) and Aksai Chin (western front). The Chinese forces overran the Indian Army positions at Namka Chu and Tawang in the eastern front, and Chip Chap Valley and Pangong Lake in the western front, after a heavy fighting and forced the Indian troops to withdraw. After a three week lull period, China resumed its offensive on 14 November 1962, and captured key positions at Se La, Bomdila, and Gurung Hill on the eastern front. In the western front, the fierce battles of Rezang La and Gurung Hill resulted in heavy casualties on both sides.

Did You Know?

• The fighting was concentrated in two locations along the India-China border, the North-East Frontier Agency (NESA) and the Aksai Chin region, which were roughly 1,000 km (620 mi) apart.
• China resumed previously banned 'forward patrols' in Ladakh after 30 April 1962.
• The conflict ended when China unilaterally declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962 and simultaneously announced its withdrawal to its pre-war position.
• Neither side officially declared a war, or broke off diplomatic relations.
• The harsh conditions resulted in several casualties, with many troops on both sides succumbing to the cold temperatures.

The Contested Border and Its Historical Roots

The main cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated Aksai Chin and NESA border regions. Aksai Chin was claimed by India as belonging to Ladakh and by China to be a part of Xinjiang. The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originated in 1834, with the conquest of Ladakh by the armies of Raja Gulab Singh (Dogra) under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire. Following an unsuccessful campaign into Tibet, Gulab Singh and the Tibetans signed a treaty in 1842 agreeing to stick to the "old, established frontiers", which were left unspecified. British commissioners fixed the southern end of the boundary at Pangong Lake, but regarded the area north of it till the Karakoram Pass as terra incognita. The Maharaja of Kashmir regarded Shahidulla as his northern outpost, in effect treating the Kunlun mountains as the boundary of his domains. After the 1862 Dungan Revolt, the Maharaja of Kashmir constructed a small fort at Shahidulla in 1864. W. H. Johnson of Survey of India was commissioned to survey the Aksai Chin region. The boundary of Kashmir that he drew, stretching from Sanju Pass to the eastern edge of Chang Chenmo Valley along the Kunlun mountains, is referred to as the "Johnson Line" (or "Ardagh-Johnson Line"). By 1892, the British settled on the policy that their preferred boundary for Kashmir was the "Indus watershed". A boundary alignment along this water-parting was defined by the Viceroy Lord Elgin and communicated to London. The British government proposed it to China via its envoy Sir Claude MacDonald in 1899. This boundary, which came to be called the Macartney–MacDonald Line, ceded to China the Aksai Chin plains in the northeast, and the Trans-Karakoram Tract in the north.

From Skirmishes to Full Offensive

A series of border skirmishes arose between the two countries after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India granted asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama. The border dispute was not resolved through bilateral talks, and China's construction of a strategic road through Aksai Chin further escalated the dispute. Chinese military action grew increasingly aggressive after India rejected proposed Chinese diplomatic settlements throughout 1960–1962, with China resuming previously banned "forward patrols" in Ladakh after 30 April 1962. In September–October 1962, tensions escalated at Dhola Post and Thagla Ridge on the eastern front, where India interpreted the McMahon Line to run along the ridge, while China rejected this claim. A series of clashes ended with Chinese forces gaining the advantage, and by 18 October, China had amassed a large number of troops for a major offensive. China abandoned all attempts towards a peaceful resolution on 20 October 1962, and launched simultaneous offensives in NESA (eastern front) and Aksai Chin (western front).

The Battles and the Nature of the Fighting

The Chinese forces overran the Indian Army positions at Namka Chu and Tawang in the eastern front, and Chip Chap Valley and Pangong Lake in the western front, after a heavy fighting and forced the Indian troops to withdraw. After a three week lull period, China resumed its offensive on 14 November 1962, and captured key positions at Se La, Bomdila, and Gurung Hill on the eastern front. In the western front, the fierce battles of Rezang La and Gurung Hill resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Much of the fighting consisted of mountain warfare, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 5,000 m (16,000 ft). The war took place entirely on land, without the use of naval or air assets, and neither side officially declared a war, or broke off diplomatic relations. The conflict happened in high altitude and freezing conditions, which caused logistic and welfare difficulties for the fighting armies. The harsh conditions also resulted in several casualties, with many troops on both sides succumbing to the cold temperatures.

Aftermath, Reassessment, and Shifting Alliances

The conflict ended when China unilaterally declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962 and simultaneously announced its withdrawal to its pre-war position, the effective China–India border. The conflict was viewed as a major military and political setback in India. In response, India rapidly modernised and expanded its armed forces, and strengthened border defences. India reassessed its policy towards China, and the conflict permanently damaged the Sino-Indian relations. As the Sino-Soviet split deepened, the Soviet Union supported India with the sale of military hardware, while India were also compelled to turn to the Soviets for military aid as the United States and the United Kingdom refused to sell them advanced weaponry.

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